What do people think of when they hear “Ainu”? Most people outside of Japan might have never heard of them. Others might just know that they are from Hokkaido, Japan, but not much else. Historically the Ainu are indigenous people of Northern Japan that had a different and unique culture and language from the Japanese. They hunted, lived in houses made of woven grass called cise, and believed that everything in nature has a god, or kamuy. They did not have a written language, but passed down songs and stories about humans and the kamuy to be passed down through many generations. But what does it really mean to be Ainu, especially in the present?

            On May 8, 1997, the Japanese government finally repealed the Former Aborigines Protection Act, which took away the properties, language, culture, and identity from the Ainu. This was great news as the Japanese government repealed the act from 1899 to acknowledge the Ainu as an ethnic minority, but it was not enough to satisfy the Ainu, as it did not acknowledge the property that was lost or having political representation in the government. The existence of the act itself is also not widely known in Japan, as a survey conducted in 1993 showed that only ten out of twenty high school Japanese history textbooks mentioned the background contact between the Ainu and mainstream Japanese, and out of those, only four mentioned the name of the act[1]. This shows how underrepresented the Ainu have been in Japanese society as they are rarely even mentioned in Japanese history textbooks, and could be a fundamental reason of why they still remain a mystery to many people in the present.

            However, there are still many people that identify as Ainu or descendants of Ainu, as well as Japanese people who want to promote recognition and respect of the Ainu culture to the rest of the Japanese society. These people express themselves through different ways, such as traditional crafts, contemporary art, music, and film. They are not just in Hokkaido, but in different parts of Japan and also in different age groups and gender. Although these people may be expressing themselves in different ways, they are united with one fundamental goal: to raise awareness and to preserve the uniquely beautiful Ainu culture.

            There are undeniable negativity associated with Ainu tourist art as there is not much transparency to where exactly the profit goes, and the Ainu who have to perform sacred traditional ceremonies as a part of a show have described the experiences as humiliating and oppressing.[2] However, tourism has also been a way of cultural expression and revival for some Ainu. Souvenir shop owners in Shiraoi, Hokkaido, one of the main Ainu tourism sites, see tourism as a way to study traditional aspects of Ainu culture, and they wish to use the knowledge gained to produce goods that were originally used by Ainu living even before the Meiji Restoration, such as matampus (headbands), saranip (bags woven from bark), and mukkur (jaw harp). They recognize the skills needed to make these goods as important to their traditional culture and asserting their Ainu identity.[3] Woodcarving is also a very popular souvenir, and items that are essential to Ainu rituals are being sold. When the Ainu lived before the Meiji Restoration, being able to produce woodcarvings of iku-pasuy (prayer sticks) and inaw (religious alters) were essential skills for men to have. The two items were essential to communicate with the gods, as they served to be the messenger between humans and gods. They carved traditional patterns that were considered to be charms to ward off evil spirits, and even used them to trade goods with the Japanese in the Edo period. Now, several decades after the Edo period, woodcarving souvenirs have changed from traditional items to sculptures of animals. Bears (Figure 1) are the most well-known, as well as owls, foxes, and Ainu mythical creatures, the korpokkur. The artists for these woodcarvings see tourist art as a way to express their identity, as the creatures they are carving are important symbols of the Ainu, and they also see it as a link to the nostalgic past.[4] As another aspect of tourism that exists in the present, museums also play an important role in conserving the Ainu culture. According to a curator at the Tokyo National Museum, in order for a culture to grow, it is necessary to go back to the old and traditional ways.[5] Some museums, such as the one in are getting together Ainu people to recreate traditional artifacts or perform traditional dances, so it can be a learning experience not only for Japanese people but also for the modern day Ainu people to learn about the culture, and pass it onto the younger generations. Although some Ainu may view performing traditional songs, dances, and rituals to an audience as trivializing the oppression their ancestors faced and taking away the meanings behind traditions, tourism art has been a significant part of the modern day Ainu people, as it is also a way for them to freely and safely express their cultural identity.

            Nibutani, Hokkaido, is not only a tourist destination, but it is a town with a significantly high Ainu population, where about 80% of the population identify as Ainu. [6] Because of the high concentration of the Ainu people, Nibutani has also been a location for scholars and artists to visit to study the language and traditional aspects of the culture. The name, “Nibutani” comes from the Ainu word, “niputai” which means “place where trees grow in abundance,” and just like the name, it is a place, rich with nature. It is the home to many traditional artists who pride themselves in their traditional craft making. In 2013, the Nibutani-ita (Figure 2), a flat, wooden tray with traditional pattern carvings, was designated as one of the Japanese Traditional Crafts by the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry.[7] As this was the first time an Ainu artifact was recognized, but also an artifact from Hokkaido was recognized, it was a significant step towards recognition and preserving traditional art. In order to be selected as a Japanese Traditional Craft, the artifact must be an everyday object, a handmade object, the technique to create it must be over 100 years old, the ingredients used to make it must be the same materials from the materials that were used in the past to create it, and the origin of production must be from one specific area.[8]

            Artists such as Toru Kaizawa, who creates Nibutani-ita, are Ainu artists who are native to Nibutani. He grew up surrounded by skilled craftsman, such as his father, and great-grandfather who was one of the two woodcarving artisans renowned for their skill in the Meiji Era. Toru Kaizawa mixes his own personality and valuable traditions and techniques that were passed on from his great-grandfather. He has also won awards, such as the Hokkaido Governor’s Award at the Hokkaido Ainu Traditional Craft Exhibition.[9] Unlike Toru Kaizawa, there are also artists who once sought another occupation but returned to creating traditional crafts. Mamoru Kaizawa, who also creates Nibutani-ita, once moved to Hokkaido after graduating from high school, but later returned to Nibutani to pursue the profound techniques of previous generations of craftsmen from his hometown. He is known for his delicate fish-scale pattern carvings called ramuramunoka in Ainu, where he creates shading by inserting the chisel into the wood at an angle (Figure 2). He was the only traditional Ainu artist to be selected from Hokkaido amongst the eighty people from all over Japan to be given the “Master of the Forest” designation by the National Land Afforestation Promotion Organization Contest, which is a recognition by the Japanese government.[10]

            There are also Japanese artists from outside of Hokkaido that came to Nibutani to master the unique Ainu woodcarvings. Haruo Suzaki was born in Osaka, but moved to Hokkaido at the age of nineteen. He is known to preserve and even bring out the raw material of the wood that he uses, as he creates modern day versions of everyday and ritualistic Ainu objects.[11] Shigehiro Takano is also a Japanese artist, born in Tokyo, who became fascinated by Ainu woodcrafts. Takano decided to move to Nibutani in his 20s and since then, he has been producing traditional Ainu items, such as the makiri (knife) and nima (bowl). He has also mastered the craft of making the tonkori, a traditional five-stringed Ainu instrument. Takano holds exhibitions throughout Japan to promote his fascination with the Ainu culture.[12] Whether if these present day woodcarving artists are Japanese, Ainu, Nibutani native, or from a big city like Tokyo, they have all gathered in Nibutani with the same passion to continue promoting and passing down the craftsmanship that originated even before the Meiji Period.

            Besides woodcarvings, embroidery and weaving are the other traditional Ainu craft that has been put in the spotlight of many artists. It is crucial that female artists to receive the same level of recognition that male artists are receiving as embroidery and weaving were historically Ainu women’s jobs, and Ainu believe that women that truly sustained daily life, preserving and handing down traditional culture.[13] One of those female artists is Rumiko Fujiya, one of the very few people to know the techniques of attus (Figure 4), traditional textile woven from tree bark fibers. She is a Nibutani native who grew up seeing and helping her mother weave attus and took over for her mother completely when she was in junior high school. She now devotes her time to mentoring the next generation.[14] The Nibutani-attus was also designated as a Japanese Traditional Crafts by the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry. Maki Sekine is another attus artist who combines traditional attus weaving and Ainu pattern embroidery with her own style as her goal is to create items that everyone can use daily. She also works to actively publicize Nibutani so that the rest of Japan and even the world can recognize traditional Ainu art.[15]

            One of the struggles that not just traditional Ainu artists, but also Japanese artists are having is to gather the interests of the younger generations. Several Ainu musicians have risen to create a sound that is a mix between traditional Ainu music and pop, rock, and contemporary music to express their identity. Oki Kano, son of the well-known Ainu sculptor, Bikky Sunazawa, combines the sounds of tonkori with electronica and reggae sounds. It was not easy for him to keep the traditions alive, as he first started learning the tonkori with only poor quality, pre-70’s recordings collected by ethnomusicologists.[16] There has been no tonkori compositions that were written down, so listening numerous times and trying to produce the subtlest sounds was Kano’s only strategy. Eventually, he built his own label and studio, produced CDs, and began performing worldwide. Kano also works closely with United Nations’ Working Group on Indigenous Populations, and collaborated with other indigenous artists from the world, such as an Australian Aboriginal band, an East Timorese poet, and a Siberian vocalist.[17] Kano says that to him, keeping tonkori music alive is like loading a gun because Ainu must fight for survival, and the tonkori is his weapon. He wishes for Ainu music to be passed onto the next generation, even if the traditional forms have changed to withstand changes and adapt to the new era.[18]

            Mina Sakai is another example. Although she did not get proper education of the Ainu language and culture as her Ainu father passed away when she was a child, she became fascinated by the lively indigenous Canadian culture and was inspired to delve further to learn more about her own identity when she went to Canada with her high school exchange program organized by a regional Ainu organization.[19] She grew up to be ashamed of her Ainu heritage as she was bullied in school, but she was amazed at how the native Canadians were glowing with pride and self-respect of their origin, which led her to study the Ainu language and express herself through a unique way: by singing and dancing. Sakai’s goal was to improve the status of the Ainu people as well as to entertain the Japanese people in an interesting way, as she mixes traditional Ainu music and dance with rock and hip hop. She started an Ainu band, Ainu Rebels, with her brother in 2006 where the band members all wore attus robes and headwear and performed Ainu music with a hint of contemporary music. There were mixed receptions as some Ainu elders were upset that what they performed was not traditionally Ainu, however, others saw their performances as empowering and recreating the Ainu culture in a new era. Although the band disbanded in 2009, Sakai continues to sing and also take part in activism. She helped organize the Indigenous Peoples’ Summit in Ainu Mosir 2008 to gather indigenous people from around the world to not only celebrate different cultures, but also to call for rights, the inclusion of Ainu perspectives in Japanese history textbooks, and a formal apology from government leaders.[20] Sakai believes it is important for her to spread Ainu culture and create a sense of pride among people with Ainu heritage, so any prejudice and discrimination against the Ainu can disappear.[21]

            After finding many Ainu and Japanese people who work to promote and sustain the Ainu culture in the present and into the future, it can be said that it is unavoidable to separate Ainu identity from Japanese identity. In terms of census, the Ainu are Japanese with Japanese citizenship. There are still the effects of the Former Aborigines Protection Act as there are still politicians that describe Japan to be a homogeneous, monolithic country and the Ainu are not given the same representation in the government as the Japanese. Ainu are not only facing discrimination in Hokkaido, but also in Tokyo, far away from their homeland. Many Ainu have moved to Tokyo to avoid discrimination, or to promote their culture to a wider group of people, however, it has not been easy. The most well-known Ainu restaurant and center of Ainu community in Tokyo, Rera Cise, closed in 2009 due to financial difficulties as the owner struggled to compete with cheaper, more cosmopolitan diners.[22] The Japanese government has also been very hesitant to include Ainu history from Ainu perspectives, as they see it as an insult to the education system. Footnotes on Okinawan culture may come up in history textbooks, yet there is little to none mention of Ainu. An important task for the future may be for non-indigenous people of Japan and outside of Japan to rethink what being “indigenous” means, and to open up a dialogue between the indigenous people and the government and government-funded organizations.[23]

The Ainu living in the present understand that living as a part of the Japanese society is unavoidable. Sustaining a critically endangered language of less than ten speakers and a culture where traditions were banned by the government for a century is difficult. However, the Ainu wish to live in a society where they can freely and safely express themselves and many of them are taking steps to pass their culture down to the younger generations. It is difficult to describe Ainu identity in the present, as each individual can express themselves differently and there has been a lot of mixing with Japanese culture. However, there is still hope for the Ainu as many people are working together to preserve and continue living the way of the Ainu. It is crucial not only for the Ainu to think about their identity, but also for the Japanese living with the Ainu to think about what it mean to be Japanese, and what it means to be Ainu.

Works Cited and Referenced

Birmingham, Lucy. "A Cultural Revival- The Spirit of Japan's Ainu Artists." The Wall Street Journal. February 26, 2010. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126699701149750779.

Cotterill, Simon. "Ainu Success: The Political and Cultural Achievements of Japan's Indigenous Minority　　アイヌの成果−−日本先住少数民族の政治的文化的業績." The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. March 21, 2011. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.japanfocus.org/-Simon-Cotterill/3500/article.html.

Hiwasaki, Lisa. "Ethnic Tourism in Hokkaido and the Shaping of Ainu Identity." Pacific Affairs 73, no. 3 (2000). doi:10.2307/2672026.

Honda, Katsuichi, and Kyoko Iriye Selden. Harukor: An Ainu Woman's Tale. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

Hudson, Mark J., Ann-elise Lewallen, and Mark K. Watson. "Representing Representations." In Beyond Ainu Studies Changing Academic and Public Perspectives, 65-66. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2014.

"Music as Weapon: Ainu Musician Fights for Cultural Survival." The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. August 07, 2005. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.japanfocus.org/-Tomoto-OTAKE/1621/article.html.

"Profile- OKI." OKI OFFICAL WEBSITE CHIKARSTUDIO. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.tonkori.com/profile/indexE.php.

Sharp, Andy. "Tokyo’s Thriving Ainu Community Keeps Traditional Culture Alive." Japan Today. March 01, 2009. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive.

"Traditional Ainu Folk Crafts." Nibutani Ainu Takumi No Michi. 2014. http://nibutani.jp/tradition/.

Yasumoto, Mariko. "Ainu 'rebels' Mix It up to Get Message across." Japan Times. November 21, 2007. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/11/22/national/ainu-rebels-mix-it-up-to-get-message-across/#.VVI2jiFVikp.